Discrimination on the Basis of Wearing Islamic Attire - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 13 Words: 3782 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2019/03/29 Category Society Essay Level High school Tags: Discrimination Essay Did you like this example? Prejudice on the Basis of Wearing Islamic Attire Physical appearance including skin colour and clothing preference are the basic information that shapes our first impression. These features also initiate our stereotypes and prejudices either in an implicit or explicit way and provide easy categorization. Headscarf as a form of clothing is a way of identifying the woman as Muslim and it helps people to draw lines as ‘us and others’ on a religious and also cultural basis. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Discrimination on the Basis of Wearing Islamic Attire" essay for you Create order Due to the visibility of headscarf, women wearing them are under the risk of stereotyping, labeling and stigmatization. As well as this categorization is seen in Muslim and non-Muslims, it is also possible to see the differentiation among Muslims, especially in places where both covered and uncovered Muslim women are located together. Turkey is one of the best suitable countries among the examples of those places. In general, regardless of the segregation of Muslim-non Muslim or among Muslims, Muslim women who wear headscarf are labelled as backward, oppressed, undereducated or as politically manipulated. When dealing with such a conflict like covered/uncovered, the context must be considered. The reasons to be covered, or what those religious attires mean change within time and place (Bhowon Bundhoo, 2016, p. 41). Shirazi and Mishra’s study (2010) highlights the importance of the context. In the study, researchers investigated the semantic versatility of the veil in different cultures, including Saudi, Iranian and Indian and concluded that the veil has no fixed meaning and its meaning depends upon the social context. In literature, there are plenty of investigations regarding the prejudice and discrimination on the basis of wearing a headscarf both in psychology and other disciplines such as sociology and politics. In these investigations, it is possible to see different highlights regarding the content of prejudice towards covered Muslim women. By combining those different contents of prejudices from several resources and regarding the classification of levels of analysis (Doise, 1980), in this article we attempt to classify the common justifications for these prejudices and to explain them regarding social psychology theories. Justifications for Headscarf Prejudice 1. Intraindividual Level of Analyses Individual characteristics. Women with headscarves are commonly labeled as backward, bigot, unattractive, uneducated and such kind of negative characteristics. A study done in England (Mahmud and Swami, 2010) confirms these labels. Results indicate that, women with headscarves are seen more religious but also less physically attractive, popular, sociable, approachable and competent. However, as both Social Identity and Social Dominance Theory emphasize, context must be considered within the examination of such kind of justifications; these labels vary in different occasions. For example, there is evidence that women who wear the Islamic headscarf would receive higher ratings for personal characteristics within Muslim communities. The study of Pasha-Zaidi (2014, p. 11) revealed that in societies in which such attires are accepted, women wearing religious clothings are perceived as more family-oriented, communal and virtuous. Other characteristics such as being more traditional in soci al and gender relationships like being submissive to men are also seen positively in those societies whereas those behaviors are commonly perceived negatively and criticized by Western societies. Another example is that in Bahrain, wearing hijab is seen as a rite of passage to adulthood and associated with positive characteristics such as goodness and morality while women without hijab are considered as less Muslim (Mahfoodh, 2008; as cited in Pasha-Zaidi, 2014, p. 4). The meaning loaded on hijab based on wearing a religious attire in this context can be explained with the arbitrary-set system in Social Dominance Theory. In addition, there may be other factors affecting those labeling. For instance, according to Zempi (2016, p. 3), some special clothings are not investigated well and mainly ignored by researchers. Such under-representations by society in general tend to strengthen the view that women who wear such attires are passive or disengaged. Emphasis on preference. Another point regarding the individual based features is the emphasis on the reasons to wear such kind of religious attires. Mainly, the reasons to cover can be due to personal religious convictions, family pressure, acceptance as a good Muslim, neutralisation of sexuality and protection from male gaze (Bhowon and Bundhoo, 2016). Therefore, the reason cannot emerge as a personal choice each time. Pointing out this rationale, some of the European feminists support headscarf bans because they believe Muslim women do not voluntarily adopt it. As mentioned above, the idea that women with religious attires are submissive to men is usually negatively perceived in Western societies, and also some specific groups with an ideology such as feminists. Overall, the reason behind covering is highly contested site of gender controversy between traditionalists and feminists (Shin, 2015, p. 31). In literature there are plenty of studies showing that women wearing Islamic attire exposed to discrimination in employment settings (King and Ahmad, 2010; Unkelbach, Schneider, Gode and Senft, 2010). Putting in a nutshell, covered women tend to be perceived more negatively and less likely to get the job compared to uncovered women. Indeed, the employers argue that as long as a woman keeps on her headscarf, she should be already declaring a choice to remain outside the visibility norms of large-scale retailing and to work in shops that cater specifically to the Islamic population. (Sayan-Cengiz, 2016, p. 151) Prejudices related to individualistic characteristics for sure cannot be justifiable. According to Zempi (2016) the local environment is also a contributing factor to women’s decision to wear the religious garment such as nijab, hijab or headscarf. As mentioned before, if there is a necessity to figure out the reason why the person chose to cover, we cannot search it onl y within the individualistic features. Also, according to Social Identity Theory, when people are categorized into groups, they come to be seen in terms of characteristic group features that define their social identities, while neglecting individual traits which define their uniqueness (Ellemers Haslam, 2012, p. 381). This kind of categorization explains the individual based prejudices towards women with Islamic attire. 2. Interindividual Level of Analyses Headscarf as an identity mark. Before talking about prejudices that can be grouped under this category, it would be appropriate to propose some related study results. Bhowon and Bundhoo (2016) found that, participants who identified themselves as Muslims placed their Muslim identity before their national one. Results also indicate that they all endorse a positive self attitude. These results are not surprising regarding Social Identity Theory. According to Turner (1984), as people define themselves and others as members of the same category, they self-stereotype in relation to the category and tend to see themselves as more alike in terms of the defining attributes of the category (as cited in; van Lange, Kruglanski Higgins, 2012, PAGE EKLE). However, the strong identification of Muslims with their groups is interpreted as a form of self-segregation, the separation of a religious or ethnic group from the rest of society in a state by the group itself. Indeed, along with as being per sonal choice, wearing religious attire emerges as an expression of belonging to the ‘ummah’ (Zempi, 2016, p. 1). Rokeach (1960) alternatively proposed that prejudice is expressed against a person not because of the persons identification with an ethnic or racial group, but rather because the person holds beliefs, or is perceived to hold beliefs that are dissimilar to the prejudiced persons beliefs (Tan and Vera, 1970, p.18). In this context, wearing headscarf is seen as an identity mark. Women with religious attires are perceived as a public expression of having deep religious commitment, therefore as a mark of difference from those whom do not wear it (Zempi, 2016, p. 5). Moreover, by being marked, women wearing headscarf are also being under an examination about the consistency of their appearance and behaviors: How much do they cover? Are their attitudes in line with their headscarves? Are they properly religious? (Sayan-Cengiz, 2016, p. 103). As a result, being under examination continuously induces the necessity of being proper, in other words necessity of perfection. From Terror Management Theory perspective, having a religious commitment provides both literal and symbolic immortality. Islamic attire is a form of symbolic immortality by strengthening the group membership and influencing others. However, noticing others with different worldviews signal the possibility that one may be wrong in his/ her belief or his/her worldview is invalid (Çaml?, 2010, p. 4). In this context, religious attire serves as a mark of differentiation between groups and trigger the basic existential anxiety and leads to negative evaluation of out-group members. This negative evaluation can exhibit itself as prejudice. Gender Oppression. From feminist perspective, there is a gender oppression in Islamic lifestyle against women. Accordingly, there should be a gender equality and women shouldn’t have to be under obligation regarding social life, while men can behave in more self-directed manner. Therefore, Islamic attire serves as a legitimacing factor of inequ ality and women with Islamic attire tend to be seen as oppressed from this perspective. The feminist perspective equated the veil with female oppression, subordination and discrimination (Pasha-Zaidi, 2014, p. 3). The idea of gender oppression is in line with the invariance hypothesis in Social Dominance Theory, suggesting that when everything else is equal there will be a men dominance towards women (Sidanius Pratto, 2012, p. 427). In addition, the feminist ideas also can be explained with hierarchy-enhancing legitimizing myths in Social Dominance Theory. The inequality between genders depends on pre-existing social norms with respect to interpretation of Islam. 3. Positional Level of Analyses Class-based assumptions. The covered-uncovered conflict led to a view on a hierarchical base regarding the position and status of women with headscarves. The main standpoint is that, women with headscarves occupy a subordinate position in society. The feminist ideas suggesting that there is men oppression to women in Islamic lifestyle gave rise to this point of view. However, if we talk about Turkey, mainly the previous legal obstacles for covered women related with attending universities and working in the public institutions provided roots for this attitude. Although currently there is no legal restriction for women with headscarves about where to study and work, it is still possible to talk about presence of a glass ceiling for those women. If we look at large-scale retail settings as chain stores or shopping malls, we can easily observe that women with religious attires are rarely engaged with these kinds of working places, they are rather engaged with small-scale, individually owned stores, especially in stores selling religious attires (Sayan-Cengiz, 2016, p. 150). The reasons for this situation can be found in large-scale retail settings’ purpose of representing an outlook related with being presentable and fashionable, young urban, middle-class, heterosexual, slim appearance with no hints of ethnic, religious, gendered, bodily particularities (Sayan-Cengiz, 2016, p. 150). In some cases, a ‘negotiation’ comes into point in which the woman is asked to not wear any religious attire in order to get the job, especially high-status ones in private sector. However, this kind of request puts the woman in a hard position because she would raise suspicions about her modesty if she accepted such request. Another point about the class-based assumptions relies on socio-economic statuses. Toprak and Uslu (2009, p. 62) showed that there is a meaningful differentiation among people with different socio-economic statues (SES) to the headscarf issue in Turkey. Accordingly, the positive attitude toward the freedom to wear the headscarf decreases as the SES increases. According to SDT, the combination of high Social Dominance Orientation and high ingroup identification among dominants produces especially strong derogation and against subordinates. Considering that, both employers and people with high socio-economic statuses can be counted in dominant groups, there is a likelihood of them to discriminate and show negative attitude towards subordinate group, women with headscarves. 4. Ideological Level of Analyses Politically manipulated. In order to understand the base of this assumption, first the differentiation between traditional and the modern, urban headscarf referred as turban should be made clear. The traditional headscarf did not always cover the hair completely like the modern turban which had no predecessor in Islamic garment (Kreiser, 2005, p. 456) and assumption is that traditional headscarf is motivated by a conscious Muslim identity whereas turban wearers are seen as a kind of activists or a new social movement (Sayan-Cengiz, 2016, p. 120). Therefore, the preference of turban is generally attributed to some political based reasons and those women who wear turban are assigned with a new kind of identity in which it is represented by turban. As Sayan-Cengiz points out (2016, p. 101) some scholars attribute a novelty to young, urban wearers of the headscarf by also emphasizing that their motivations are contoured by the modern Islamist movement. The rates of political parties in Turkey provide another base for this assumption. There is a great distinction between the followers of other parties and Republican People’s Party supporters, who think in considerably high rates that wearing the headscarf in universities and public offices is contrary to secularism (Toprak and Uslu, 2009, p. 59). Therefore, it is possible to conclude that the attitude toward the headscarf can be shaped by political party preferences. In addition, it is possible to see more robust form of prejudice based on ideological reasons in the Western side of the World. Because of the Anti-Muslim stereotypes in a post-9/11 and 7/7 era, especially Muslim women who wear face veil are stigmatized, criminalized and marked as ‘dangerous’. Hence, the wearing of the face veil is often understood as a practice synonymous with religious fundamentalism and, as such, one which fosters political extremism (Zempi, 2016, p. 1). Against modernization. Modernization theory focuses on the convergence to the Western culture patterns. Accordingly, at the end of the industrialization period, each culture will resemble to Western societies. Therefore, the predominant Western values referred as modern. The main values that are emphasized by Western societies are freedom and personal autonomy. As mentioned before, Islamic attire, especially veil, is seen as a form of accepting predominance of men therefore regarded as opposed to fre edom, equality and personal autonomy. This kind of thinking leads to prejudice and discrimination on a basis of clothing preference. Women with religious attire are commonly labeled as pre-modern and they are seen as a threat to the ideal figure of Westernized citizen of the Turkish Republic (Sayan-Cengiz, 2016, p. 101). However, it wouldn’t be wrong to say that by discriminating on a cultural base concerning Western values, those people are actually behaving contradictory. Indeed, Saraoglou et al.’s study showed that people who gave importance to freedom tended to show less negative attitude towards veil (Saroglou, Lamkaddem, Pachterbeke, Buxant, 2009, p. 426). From another perspective, some women with Islamic attire see this kind of clothing as a form of resistance to imposition of Western clothings and they reported that they feel more in control of their bodies in this way (Zempi, 2016, p. 9). Some similar results (Dunkel, Davidson and Qurashi, 2010, p. 63) indicate that women with Islamic attire have a preference for larger body shape, which is against the Western beauty values. Against secularism. In general, secularism which emphasizes the life in the real world rather than the hereafter and other religious or spiritual issues is identified with ‘modernization’. Along with secularism and modernization, the visibility of the headscarf increases and it has caused controversy between some groups of society. Especially secularists’ and feminists’ ideas became inconsistent with the ideas of women with headscarf and their supporters. As mentioned before the headscarf is seen as backward, rural, traditional, and as an indicator of women’s submission. In addition, in the eyes of secularists and feminists, the headscarf is the symbol of backwardness rather than women conscious of their rights and freedoms and demands on this issue carry the threat of radical Islam and a theocratic state. Moreover, men fulfill duties in the public place while women are isolated from outside and are mainly responsible for bringing up children and doi ng daily housework. Therefore, headscarf serves as a symbol of this division of labor and the banning women from public life (Genel Karaosmano?lu, 2006; as cited in Toprak Uslu, p. 52). According to this view, women do not cover their heads based upon personal choice, rather they are forced to do so by Islamist men. According to Ç?nar (2008, p. 907), the headscarf has been declared by the Islamist political elite as â€Å"the symbol of struggle of Islam against secularism† (as cited in Sayan-Cengiz, 2016, p. 120). This statement represents the situation in a very clear manner. These notions are embedded within the concern that the headscarf is a threat against the achievements of Turkish modernization project, especially with regard to women’s rights. In Turkey, the secular elite as well as women organizations including feminists do not have any sympathy toward women wearing the headscarf and do not promote their welfare or do not support them in getting an education, participating in public life and benefiting from public goods (Seà §kinelgin, 2006; Marshall, 2005; as cited in Toprak and Uslu, 2009, p. 52) An important point is that, the perceptions towards Muslim women with religious attire may not necessarily be as dichotomous as the debate between secular feminists and Is lamic feminists. El Hamel (2002) found that secular feminists tend to equate the hijab with oppression and subjugation of women, whereas Islamic feminists perceive the hijab as a symbol of freedom from materialism and the imperialism of Western ideals (Pasha-Zaidi, 2014, p. 3). In summary there are two contrary aspects, on the one hand according to feminism perspective headscarf is a symbol of oppression; and on the other hand, it was said that meaning of headscarf is biased and overstated (Bhowon Bundhoo, 2016 p. 34). Conclusion People use different types of justifications to explain their prejudices. However, none of them is able to legitimate such kind of negative attitudes. Prejudice leads to discrimination and causes problems in social life, especially for disadvantaged group members. In this article, we aimed to group the justifications for headscarf prejudice and it is possible to conclude that the justifications on the basis of wearing Islamic attire considerably vary. On the other hand, there is an outstanding emphasis on the macro level factors such as political and cultural agents. Understanding prejudice with respect to theoretical framework can help us to provide some solutions to reduce them. Regarding the theoretical framework, we believe that Social Dominance Theory is able to explain headscarf controversy in more detailed manner whereas Social Identity Theory is more powerful in terms of its ability to explain various aspects of prejudice. Several suggestions can be argued in order to reduce prejudice. First of all, if people get educated about prejudice, this could help them to be aware of their own prejudices and make self-regulation which might turn into automatic manner eventually (Monteith et al., 2016; as cited in Kite Whitley, 2010, p. 535). Also, the self-awareness could help to question the social norms and how much they actually identify themselves with those norms. However, because prejudices are learned in early years of life, simply getting educated about them might not be enough to control them. In this regard, although it is necessary to get educated no matter what, just relying on individual based solutions would not be realistic. Therefore, as Allport (1954) suggest, institutional support should come to view and authorities need to focus on prejudice issue for finding solutions to reduce them (as cited in Kite Whitley, 2010, p. 537). Also, regarding the prejudice towards women with Islamic attire, em phasizing a shared Muslim identity by disregarding the interpretation differences can reduce prejudice between Muslim groups. References Bhowon, U., Bundhoo, H. (2016). Perceptions and Reasons for Veiling: A Qualitative Study. Psychology and Developing Societies, 28(1), 29–49. doi:10.1177/0971333615622894 Çaml?, ?. (2010). Attitudes Towards Allowance Of Headscarf In The Universities: A Terror Management Theory Perspective. Unpublished thesis, Middle East Technical University. Çarko?lu, A., Toprak, B. (2016). De?i?en Tà ¼rkiye’de Din, Toplum ve Siyaset. Retrieved from: https://tesev.org.tr/tr/yayin/degisen-turkiyede-din-toplum-ve-siyaset/ Doise, W. (1980). Levels of explanation in the European Journal of Social Psychology. European Journal of Social Psychology, 10(3), 213–231. doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420100302 Dunkel, T. M., Davidson, D. Qurashi S. (2010). Body satisfaction and pressure to be thin in younger and older Muslim and non-Muslim women: The role of Western and nonWestern dress preferences. Body Image 7: 56–65. Ellemers, N. Haslam, S. A. (2012). Social identity theory. In P. A. M. van Lange, A. W. Kruglanski E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology. (Vol. 2) (pp. 379-398). London: Sage Pub. Jost, J. T., Banaji, M. R. Nosek, B. A. (2004). A decade of system justification theory: Accumulated evidence of conscious and unconscious bolstering of the status quo. Political Psychology, 25(6), 881-919. King, E. B., Ahmad, A. S. (2010). An Experimental Field Study of Interpersonal Discrimination Toward Muslim Job Applicants. Personnel Psychology, 63(4), 881–906. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2010.01199.x Kite, M. E. Whitley, B. E. Jr. (2010). The psychology of prejudice and discrimination (2. Ed.). Wadsworth: Cengage Learning. Kreiser, K. (2005). Turban and tà ¼rban: â€Å"Divider between belief and unbelief†. A political history of modern Turkish costume. European Review, 13(3), 447–458. doi:10.1017/s1062798705000566 Mahmud, Y., Swami, V. (2010). The influence of the hijab (Islamic head-cover) on perceptions of women’s attractiveness and intelligence. Body Image, 7(1), 90–93. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2009.09.003 Pasha-Zaidi, N. (2014). The Hijab Effect: An exploratory study of the influence of hijab and religiosity on perceived attractiveness of Muslim women in the United States and the United Arab Emirates. Ethnicities, 15(5), 742–758. doi:10.1177/1468796814546914 Saroglou, V., Lamkaddem, B., Van Pachterbeke, M., Buxant, C. (2009). Host society’s dislike of the Islamic veil: The role of subtle prejudice, values, and religion. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 33(5), 419–428. doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2009.02.005 Sayan-Cengiz, F. (2016). Beyond Headscarf Culture in Turkey’s Retail Sector. (1st ed.). London: Palgrave Macmillan Shin, A. L. (2015). Muslim women and the veil: an experimental study of social bias. Unpublished postgraduate thesis. Iowa State University. Shirazi, F., Mishra, S. (2010). Young Muslim women on the face veil (niqab). International Journal of Cultural Studies, 13(1), 43–62. doi:10.1177/1367877909348538 Sidanius, J. Pratto F. (2012). Social dominance theory. In P. A. M. van Lange, A. W. Kruglanski E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology. (Vol. 2) (pp. 418-438). London: Sage Pub. Tajfel, H., Turner, J. C. (2004). The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behavior. In J. T. Jost J. Sidanius (Eds.), Key readings in social psychology. Political psychology: Key readings (pp. 276-293). New York, NY, US: Psychology Press. Tan, A. L., de Vera, G. (1970). A test of Rokeachs belief congruence theory of prejudice. Philippine Journal of Psychology, 3(1), 18-21. Toprak, M., Uslu, N. (2009). The Headscarf Controversy in Turkey. Journal of Economic and Social Research, 11(1), 43-67. Turner, J. C. Reynolds, K. J. (2012). Self-categorization theory. In P. A. M. van Lange, A. W. Kruglanski E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology. (Vol. 2) (pp. 399-417). London: Sage Pub. Unkelbach, C., Schneider, H., Gode, K., Senft, M. (2010). A Turban Effect, Too: Selection Biases Against Women Wearing Muslim Headscarves. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 1(4), 378–383. doi:10.1177/1948550610378381 Zempi, I. (2016). ‘It’s a part of me, I feel naked without it’: choice, agency and identity for Muslim women who wear the niqab. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 39(10), 1738–1754. doi:10.1080/01419870.2016.1159710

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Psychology Social Interaction - Click to get a Sample Solution

Question: Discuss about thePsychologyfor Social Interaction. Answer: Introduction Autism is a psychological or neurovascular disorder that is characterized by impaired social interaction, restricted and repeated behavior and impaired verbal and nonverbal communication. The disorder usually arises at a young age. Children with autism need special care and support for leading a normal life. In a learning environment, several kinds of literature have been found to identify a diverse range of issues, while handling autistic patients. The autistic children often show restricted behavior in class, hampering learning process and growth. Several strategies have been implemented for reducing restrictive behavior and cognitive issues of autistic children. They need a continuous support from the educator or care giver for coping with rest of the world. They are literal with who they live and learn, if they get adequate support, as opined by Syriopoulou-Delli et al. They may need support and assistance for social interactions. Based on the information regarding working with t he autistic children in childhood care setting, as a care worker. It has hypothesized that support and reinforcement will be helpful, but punishment will not, for autistic children," in a learning environment. This is the thesis statement and in the following paragraphs, this thesis statement will be focused along with arguments from different relevant kinds of literature, for analyzing the validity of the statement, based on other's opinion. Discussion In my position statement, I will say for the statement hypothesized previously, that, support and reinforcement are helpful, instead of punishment, while handling autistic children.' I am taking this side of the argument, as I have revealed several information for the statement, from the previous literature search, as well as, I have experienced the same, in the child care setting, I work for. I support the fact that educators and care givers experience a lot of difficulties, which can make them irritated and anxious and sometimes, they punish autistic children., especially, due to their restrictive or repetitive behavior, but it is not the correct way, as it makes them more restrictive and frightened Escobedo et al. Moreover, from my perspective, autistic kids are not scary or unlovable, they are just slightly different from the other kids, they need additional support and care, which can promote their cognitive development, instead of punishing them. In a case study by Lagattuta and Drika, mother of an autistic child revealed that punishment or threats of punishment lead to anxiety or related phenomenon, thereby inferring with the cognitive process. She revealed that her son would work towards a reward but will shut down if he fears punishment. Educating and disciplining autistic children are a very important aspect for autistic children. Reinforcement refers to strengthening some activity or argument, in case of behavior, reinforcement is referred to strengthening behavior. It has been revealed that positive reinforcement can promote a particular behavior. Providing reward is a positive reinforcement; for example, Mary usually takes mops the floor, when it is dirty. She observed that, when she cleans the floor, her mother praises her, for her good practice. Thus, in future, when the floor becomes dirty or stained, she takes the initiative to clean the floor, as she felt good when her mom praised her. It has been seen that social reward leads to strengthening Mary's behavior of cleaning the floor when it is dirty. Therefore, from this event, my position statement for the thesis statement is supported that the positive reinforcement is helpful while handling autistic children. In contrast, punishment is referred to delivering some consequences after an undesirable behavior that happens for it to be decreased and eliminated. It has been argued by Wing that positive punishment also has a good effect for making children disciplined, however, most of the evidence are arguing that for autism children love and respect is very important, which can be provided to them through the support and reinforcement, but not through punishments. However, many parents and educators have denied applying positive punishment for shaping their childs behavior, as it has been revealed that positive punishment does not serve for motivating children to correct their behavior. In contrast, negative punishment has been seen to modify a childs behavioral attributes, as the child modifies his or her behavior for gaining the reward. Most of the behaviorists are focusing towards reinforcement, instead of punishment, but punishment is not out of place while dealing with or teaching an autistic child. It has been claimed by Hall that negative punishment works good for autistic children, especially when it is implemented combined with the reinforcement and supportive strategies, because, sometimes it is important for the autistic children to experience harder and negative consequences in a situation; it is difficult to learn about the negative consequences, without going through a punishment. From my perspective, punishment can demotivate the child to adhere with the task given to him. Autistic children are more sensitive compared to normal children. While working at early childhood center, I have experienced a lot of issues with these autistic children, however, I have learned that they admire and follow the person, whoever shows them love and respect, once they feel humiliated, their progress in a task or learning is ceased or hampered. From the viewpoint of Kazdin, the positive behavior support is more than a correct political approach towards behavior management. The author claimed that punishment is ineffective for long run, which can increase aggressive behavior. The priority is to promote positive behavior in children, which cannot be promoted through punishment, as it does not show love toward the child. It is evident that children with autism develop challenging behaviors that become intense with time and difficult to handle and change. Considering this factor, Gena et al. stated that managing the behavioral issue involves the combination of several underlying mental and physical health concerns that needs to be addressed. Educational and behavioral supports are the best possible measures that can be made available to achieve the desirable results of teaching them the skills of self-regulation and replacement. Adoption of the effective strategies can bring out the best out of the child under consideration however, punishment can further degrade the situation (Perry and Andrea). The authors were in favor for the position statement that vouched for support and reinforcement for the autistic children instead of punishment and in this context, positive behavioral support can be the most effective and appropriate approach to the management of the autistic behavior. In response to this, a counter argument was raised by Everard where the author stated that the alternative to of support management of autistic behavior is punishment as it tends to decrease the behavior likelihood by removal of the objects of interest like a toy. The author believe that this will consequently decrease the unpleasant behavior of the autistic children like spanking and yelling. From the contrast of these two kinds of literature, I can make out that while punishment has quicker effects in immediate controlling the behavior of the autistic children, it has proved to be inefficient in the long run and has ultimately increased the hostile attitude of the autistic child. This has been supplemented with additional undesirable behaviors that can eventually strain the relationship that he has with the caregiver (Gebbie et al.). Therefore, it is evident that positive feedback and support can be beneficial in the long run as they have proved to be effective and aid in the maintenance of improvements. Considering the argument from the context of transition time, it is essential for all human beings to move successfully across various activities. It is difficult for the autistic children to shift attention to various activities and tasks or if there are changes in the routine. To explain the strategies to facilitate the successful shift of attention, Kylliinen et al. carried out a research work and demonstrated that the difficulty for the autistic children occurs because of greater requirement of predictability, difficulty in understanding of the forth coming activities and challenges in understanding disrupted behaviors. The authors believe that these difficulties of the autistic children have to be understood with compassion and punishment is not the desirable strategy to handle such difficulties of the autistic children. The authors have suggested transition strategies for supporting the autistic children without hampering their independence and ability for success. To carry on with the argument, Willis stated that punishments are the negative consequences that can let the child know that the behavior is disrupting and unacceptable. A visual timer can be set to measure the duration of effect of the applied punishment and this can set a rule that can be applied for different misbehaviors for better handling of the child. However, my standpoint out of the two kinds of literature is that although punishment can make the child aware of his misconduct, it cannot go deep and make him realize the importance of an appropriate behavior. Therefore, the child might learn what not to do but he will never learn why not to do out of punishment. Conclusion On a concluding note, it can be stated that several things can be done to overcome the challenges faced by the autistic children, however, punishment is not the solution for effective handling of the challenges. Better knowledge about the child can aid to provide better support to the children with autism and punishment can deteriorate the process of improvement and acceptance. References Escobedo, Lizbeth, et al. "MOSOCO: a mobile assistive tool to support children with autism practicing social skills in real-life situations." Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. ACM, 2012. Everard, Margaret P., ed.An Approach to Teaching Autistic Children: Pergamon International Library of Science, Technology, Engineering and Social Studies. Elsevier, 2014. Gebbie, Deborah H., et al. "The role of teacher efficacy in strengthening classroom support for preschool children with disabilities who exhibit challenging behaviors."Early Childhood Education Journal40.1 (2012): 35-46. Gena, Angeliki, et al. "Parent Training for Families With a Child With ASD: A Naturalistic Systemic Behavior Analytic Model."European Journal of Counselling Psychology4.1 (2016). Hall, Laura J. Autism spectrum disorders: From theory to practice. Pearson Higher Ed, 2012. Kazdin, Alan E. Behavior modification in applied settings. Waveland Press, 2012. Kylliinen, Anneli, et al. "Practical guidelines for studying young children with autism spectrum disorder in psychophysiological experiments."Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders1.4 (2014): 373-386. Lagattuta, Kristin Hansen, and Drika Weller. "Interrelations between theory of mind and morality."Handbook of Moral Development,(2014): 385-407. Perry, Ewan, and Andrea Flood. "Autism Spectrum Disorder And Attachment: A Clinicians Perspective.."Attachment in Intellectual and Developmental Disability: A Clinician's Guide to Practice and Research(2016): 79. Syriopoulou-Delli, Christine K., et al. "Teachers perceptions regarding the management of children with autism spectrum disorders." Journal of autism and developmental disorders 42.5 (2012): 755-768. Willis, Clarissa.Teaching young children with autism spectrum disorder. Gryphon House, Inc., 2015. Wing, Lorna. The Autistic Spectrum: Revised edition. Hachette UK, 2012.

Symbolism in the short story girl by Jamaica Kincaid Research Paper Example

Symbolism in the short story girl by Jamaica Kincaid Paper Name: Lecturer: Course: Date: We will write a custom essay sample on Symbolism in the short story girl by Jamaica Kincaid specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Symbolism in the short story girl by Jamaica Kincaid specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Symbolism in the short story girl by Jamaica Kincaid specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Symbolism in the short story girl by Jamaica Kincaid Symbolism is one of the stylistic devices incorporated in literary works. This involves the use of real objects to represent abstract ideas. Symbols in literary works materialize in a variety of ways and can be interpreted into ideas universal in nature than the physical aspect of the object used. In the short story, ‘Girl’, Jamaica Kincaid utilizes the use of symbolism by incorporating tangible items such as the trunk, marbles and Benna, which is effective, in my opinion as it serves the purpose of evoking the reader to consider their significance and creating comprehension of the prevailing human conditions. One of the stylistic devices used in the short story â€Å"girl†, by Jamaica Kincaid, is symbolism. The short story depicts various objects that have been given deeper meaning. One is the trunk belonging to Annie’s mother (Schilb, 55). This object is used by the author to represent the self. When Annie was a young girl, one of her most interesting activities involved perusing through the mother’s trunk. Later on, we find her defining her own self by using the various objects that she found in the trunk. At a tender age, Annie would share the mother’s trunk without limits since the trunk and her very own self were the same (Schilb, 56). The narrative details the mother’s trunk to having come from Dominica. This meant that the trunk seemed to contain the entire family’s history. Later on, when Annie decides to have her personal trunk, this trunk will take the resemblance of her self just like the one that belonged to her mother. This new trunk now symbolizes her new realization of self as it goes to the extent of bearing a label that reads, â€Å"My name is Annie John. The use of trunk to symbolize personality is highly thoughtful. In daily lives, trunks are normally used to putting old personal effects. With this regard, going through a person’s trunk leads to one revealing a lot of history, and hence reveals one’s personality. Another form of symbolism is identified in the Marbles. The initial marbles given to Annie are from her mother after she recovers them from a package of oats. The two marbles are different in color with one being white with blue while the other being white with yellowish brown. Annie takes the blue marble to be symbolic of the ocean and the brown marble to be representative of the landmasses of the earth. Later on, Annie obtains some new marble that symbolize the new world that Annie is attempting to fashion for herself (Kincaid, 56). After receiving the new set of marbles, Annie decides to devote herself to marbles. By this, she gets to win marbles from all the people and collects a sizeable stash. The development of Annie’s marble career goes in hand with shifting in her world as she now spends quality time with the red girl. The red girl is symbolic to the non-socialized order. As Annie plays with the marbles, she gets to see beyond what both her mother and teachers have been teaching her. She now gets to see the original restrictive worldview. There is an instance where we see Annie’s mother furiously searching for her marbles. The real item she is seeking is not the physical marbles but the new world that these marbles have opened up Annie to. The mother is opposed to this new world, as it tends to defy the new social program. Marbles take the shape of crystal balls used by seers in foretelling hidden details. The author is therefore in place when he uses marbles to illustrate how the â€Å"gir l† has attained a new worldview. Milton’s paradise lost is a narrative that â€Å"girl is compelled to take notes as punishment for allegedly blaspheming Christopher Columbus in her history book. The title of the book â€Å"Paradise Lost† is apt. The story narrated in the book is about the fall of Lucifer. The book narrates how Lucifer was plunged into darkness and exile as punishment for challenging God. The problems facing Annie could be identical to the predicament Lucifer was in at the time. Annie is facing a predicament for challenging the authority of her mother and by association of the colonial order although she fears the punishment of being thrown into exile. The title of the book is also symbolic of the predicament that could befall Annie for apparently challenging the colonial authority that deemed it fit in terming Columbus a hero. The idea of exile is representative of Annie’s fear of being left all alone. The title, â€Å"A Lost Paradise†, is apt for Antigua. It is an isla nd with the scenery resembling that of a paradise. It was however transformed into a virtual hell through the settling of the Europeans who introduced slavery in the land. In the short story, the author uses the word Benna to symbolize sexuality. Benna are Antiguan folk songs that are used to symbolize sexuality. Annie’s mother fears that Annie has come across too much knowledge on sexuality for her age. In the native Antiguan culture, the natives used to sing Bennas as a means of passing on scandalous rumors and gossips surreptitiously without the knowledge of the colonialists. Her naivety led her to singing the Benna in church, â€Å"don’t sing Benna in Sunday school; you mustn’t speak to wharf-rat†. The act of singing Benna during Sunday school classes was an act of utter sin and disobedience (Saxton, 45). The Benna contained outlawed information that could not be uttered in public. Making such utterances in a church setting was both disobedience and sinful. Annie was too young to comprehend the relationship between Benna and sexuality as the older people like her mother did, however, the manner in which she protested indicates that she was aware of the seductive meaning behind the Benna, its mystique and its forbidden aspects. The fact that Annie is too adamant and near desperate denials raise the idea that she could have already sung the Benna and worst still, during Sunday school classes with some of her friends. This is an indication that Annie has developed an interest in the opposite sex in addition to a mounting exasperation with the mother’s guidance and incursion into her personal life (Saxton, 45). Food is another object used the short story to symbolize the mother’s belief on the importance of domesticity. There are numerous occasions where the mother emphasizes on food. The knowledge of preparing pumpkin fritters, tea, bread pudding, doukona, and pepper are highly essential as they form a link between the womenfolk and the families. The skills and art behind food preparation act as great legacies of mothers passed down to new generations through their daughters. Some of the foods such as doukona and pepper pot act as objects of placing the story Antigua and the Caribbean. These foods are mentioned by the author to indicate the setting of the story to the reader, instead of using unnecessary descriptions. Clothing in the story is used to indicate the level of respectability. Clothes are closely associated with proper housekeeping in indicating a woman’s character. Annie’s mother emphasizes on the clothing aspects since proper clothing reflects an individual’s character and personality, whereas shabbiness reflected the level of laziness and poverty present in an individual. The activities involved in clothing preparation that include Washing, sewing, and ironing are used as forms of protecting the status held by women in addition to defending the women’s productivity and self-worth (Milne, 45). The neatness and appearance of a woman’s cloth is a reflection of her sexual respectability and morality. The use of clothing in displaying good organization skills and well grooming in women were indications of her competence and control. In addition, these women could never be suspected of having outlawed relationships with other men. Annie’s mother therefore puts a lot of emphasis on the importance of dressing and appearance since she does not want the daughter to fall victim of ridicule and disrespect. Her fears are constantly reflected by the many times she cautions her child from being a â€Å"slut† (Milne, 45). In conclusion, we find that the author has utilized symbolism in the short story, girl. Symbolism in the story takes the form of concrete objects, actions, characters and figures of speech to take on abstract ideas. Concrete objects such as Annie’s trunk are used by the author to represent universal meanings such as Annie’s self. The act of clothing oneself is taken to represent the moral standards of a person especially for the womenfolk in the narrative. The most challenging symbol used in the narrative is the Benna. This is because one requires background knowledge to be acquainted with why the Benna was highly constrained from being used in the church. Works Cited Kincaid, Jamaica. Girl. San Francisco: San Francisco Examiner, 1991. Print. Milne, Ira M. Short Stories for Students: Presenting Analysis, Context, and Criticism on Commonly Studied Short Stories. Detroit: Gale Group, 2000. Print. Saxton, Ruth. The Girl: Constructions of the Girl in Contemporary Fiction by Women. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1998. Print. Schilb, John. Making Literature Matter: An Anthology for Readers and Writers. S. l.: Bedford St Martins, 2011. Print.

20 Analytical Essay Topics Urban Economics Points to Use While Writing

20 Analytical Essay Topics Urban Economics Points to Use While Writing If you are tasked with writing a great analytical essay on the topic of urban economics, then you should start off on a great foot by reviewing the potential twenty topics listed below. See if any of these fits within the parameters of your writing assignment and let the creativity flow: The Key Economic Forces Which Drive The Creation and Support of Cities as well as Regional Agglomeration The Theory and Evidence Which Supports the Emergence of Cities Why Location of Workers and Firms is the Part of Core Periphery Model of Urban Economics The Impact That the Emergence of Cities Has on Worker’s Productivity How Manufactured Goods Are Contingent upon Economies of Scale with Amount of Production Limited by Returns The Impact That the Emergence of Cities Has on Urban Amenities How Agricultural Products Rely on Unskilled Labor and Have Set Products Produced at a Rate Constant with the Scale, Reliant upon a Fixed Designation of Land and a Fixed Designation of Unskilled Labor in order to Produce Said Products The Impact That the Emergence of Cities Has On Congestion How the Price for Modern Products is Related to Trade Cost as well as Competition Cost How Imported Products are Priced Higher because of Regional Differences Why Higher Import Costs Result in Lower Local Consumption and Higher Consumption of Non-Imported, Local Items The Symmetric Equilibrium for Symmetric Regions and How Firms Remaining in Their Region Maintain This Equilibrium The Self-Correcting Swap Model for Relocation The Self-Reinforcing Relocation Model The Issues in Measuring Urban Characteristics The Methodologies Used in Measuring Urban Characteristics The Designing of the Most Appropriate Urban Policies Economic Theory and Evidence to Support the Internal City Structures Economic Theory Supporting Urban and Housing Policies, Specifically How They Enhance Urban Living Environments The Role Cities Play in the Development of Aggregate Economics To write a better analytical essay on urban economics, you must surely go through the facts on urban economics together with the writing guide. Of course, writing a good analytical essay about urban economics requires more than just selecting the topic, flicking through some facts, which is why you will find a sample essay below on one of the topics listed above: Analytical Sample Essay: Why Location of Workers and Firms is Part of Core Periphery Model of Urban Economics Urban economics is a vast field whose theories dictate that the location of workers and their firms is directly related to the production of products, competition, costs, and the growth of cities. In theory equilibrium is achieved among all manufacturing firms when each location maintains equal footing in various regions. If there are two distinct regions, the West region and the East region, there could exist three companies manufacturing different product varieties in both the East and the West regions. So long as each company maintains production in a specific region with limited imports into the opposite region, equilibrium can be achieved. The reason for this is that the same employment opportunities exist in both regions for all potential workers. Because of the similar demand and the similar supply the wages available for employees also remains roughly even. When companies in the East want to supply products to the west, they have to pay for transportation costs which are refe rred to as the trade costs. In supplying products to the east to be imported the Western manufacturers have to increase the price of their products to cover the trade cost. If an increase in price for imported products took place, many consumers would purchase if you imported products in exchange for higher numbers of local products. That being said companies in the East can produce local products and consumers will buy imported products from the west at a smaller rate compared to the products that they purchase from local suppliers in the east. With this in mind cities do not grow exponentially, urban landscapes remain roughly the same, and all businesses have the ability to compete within the open market at regular competitive prices and demand , forcing them to focus instead on simply providing a unique variety to similar products. This can be changed when a single manufacturer from the West decide to move the firm, relocating it to the east. When the relocation from the west to the east takes place, production changes, trade cost goes away and demand changes too. When the trade cost goes away consumers are more likely to purchase products from the newly relocated Western company now situated inside of the eastern region. In some cases this will naturally balance out, reverting back to the equilibrium which once existed by way of a similar manufacturing firm located in the east simply moving their production to the west. By doing this the two companies switch places and maintain the same products, profits, and consumer base demand. Of course the alternative to this is that the increased profits now gained by the Western company that recently moved to the eastern region serve as a tantalizing suggestion or opportunity for the other company remaining in the West. As such additional companies in the West can reloc ate to the east, essentially taking all profits away from those local eastern based manufacturers. When things like this take place changes in demographics, larger city development, and grand changes to the economic landscape are inevitable. Again a potential change to this can be the natural swap of the aforementioned companies from the east simply assuming the open opportunity now left in the West. In all cases this serves as a prime example of how production and location influence city development and are imperative to the understanding of urban economics and development. Overall fluctuation in the economic landscape can impact the development of cities, and by extension can impact the development of urban policies and land planning as well as urban living policies. As companies grow and changes take place in the existing workforce, manufacturing landscape, and product availability, subsequent changes have to take place in terms of policy and workers, wages, and products. References Alonso, William.  A Model Of The Urban Land Market. 1960. Print. Arnott, Richard, and Daniel P McMillen.  A Companion To Urban Economics. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub., 2006. Print. Harvey, J, and Ernie Jowsey.  Urban Land Economics. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004. Print. OSullivan, Arthur.  Urban Economics. Boston: McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 2003. Print. Perloff, Harvey S, and Lowdon Wingo.  Issues In Urban Economics. [Baltimore]: Published for Resources for the Future [Washington] by the Johns Hopkins Press, 1968. Print. Rasmussen, David W.  Urban Economics. New York: Harper Row, 1973. Print. Segal, David.  Urban Economics. Homewood, Ill.: R.D. Irwin, 1977. Print.

Assessing ELL students Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Assessing ELL students - Research Paper Example All together, adult ELL students in United States universities speak roughly 400 languages, even though approximately 80% are native speakers of Spanish. Individuals of Asian origin — mainly speakers of Cantonese, Mandarin, Korean and Hmong — account for almost 5% of the size of adult ESL learners in United States universities. While most of these learners are found in prime urban centers, many others reside together in smaller towns. English-language learners (ELLs) are concentrated in six states — California, Arizona, Texas, Florida, New York and Illinois. The English-language learners in those six states make up more than 60% of the ELL population. The United States federal regime’s No Child Left Behind rule of 2001 has created the urge to make legitimate and fair assessments for English-language learners an issue of pressing nationwide concern (Hakuta, 2009). Therefore, institutions have produced frameworks that tend to assist educators, practitioners and test developers, in making appropriate choices on assessment of English language learners in educational content fields. ... This is why university guidelines are so vital: they help teachers assess students’ mastery of content while reducing the role of the learner’s English proficiency in its assessment. The three universities that will be considered are the University of North Carolina, University of Denver and Georgetown University. Part 1: Interview University of North Carolina Freshly enrolled international learners, who are supposed to hand in a TOEFL score, are urged to take the English Proficiency Assessment prior to registering for classes (University of North Carolina, 2013). Students willing to be enrolled must go through some information at their admission letters to check whether they should sit for the exam. The exam is administered just prior to the start of the Spring and Fall semesters. The aim of the English Proficiency Assessment is to recognize those learners who would profit from more English instruction in a program (ENGL 601) created to establish standard United States academic writing conventions. Rooted in the results of the exam, a student might be needed to sit for the ENGL 601 program during his or her first fall semester of admission (University of North Carolina, 2013). A student meets North Carolina University’s English Language Proficiency requirements if they completed Grades 11, as well as 12 English, in succession, as part of two full academic years, in any high school via a state- or provincially-accredited United States curriculum. Also, the student is expected to have attained a grade of 80% or more in a Grade 12 state-examined English program, as part of one full term of education. University of Denver The University of Denver recognizes either the TOEFL or IELTS as

Promoting Reading Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Promoting Reading Development - Essay Example The strategy used is highly comprehensive. The other strategy is the use of the use of tests in vocabulary understanding. These tests can be either written or oral (Glasgow and Cheyne, 2010). The written ones can be used to test and improve the ability of the learner to capture English words at a personal level. They also help to improve the spelling ability of the learner. Oral tests can be conducted to help improve the pronunciation of the learner. These oral tests can be carried out in the classroom where each student is given an opportunity to stand in front of the class and spell out English words. For every wrong spelling the learner can be assisted by other learners in the classroom. The other strategy that can be used is the reading out loud of English texts in class. The teacher can come with various English books and distribute them among the students. The books can be of any topic ranging from history to geography and biology. The learners then take turns to read sections of the books out loud in the classroom (Glasgow and Cheyne, 2010). This tests their fluency in reading and helps them in the correct pronunciation of the English words. In addition, the learners also get to improve their vocabulary by learning new words. After the reading out in class, the learners are required to write a report on the book that was read in class (Spiro, 1980). The teacher assesses each report and identifies the level of understanding of each learner. After this, the teacher can then point out each learner’s weakness and give them an assignment of reading a particular book by themselves and submitting another report. The other strategy that can be used is educational video shows in class. These can range from pronunciation shows to just the normal shows. During each show, the learner is required to listen carefully to the conversations. At the end of each show, there can be a set of questions to be answered based